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Todays World of Economics Whilst prokaryotes do not have a structured nucleus and other composite cell organelles found in eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic beings allocate the some general features with eukaryotes with the knowledge of cell division is, For instance, they both reproduce DNA in a semi traditional manner, and the separation of the lately formed DNA molecules can transpire […]. Extraction and Characterization of Bacterial DNA ABSTRACT: In this experiment, deoxyribonucleic acid DNA was extracted from Micrococcus lysodeikticus, a bacteria with a high guanine and cytosine content. Relationship between CRISPR-Cas9 and Stem Cells Have you ever wondered if it is possible to cure cancer, have dna essay related babies from same-sex parents, completely eradicate dna essay, resurrect an extinct species, dna essay, or even insert a GIF into bacteria and have the bacteria replicate the GIF?
Cloning of an Endangered Species Bos Gaurus: Using Interspecies Nuclear Transfer Despite efforts to maintain wildlife conservation dna essay well as biodiversity, many endangered animals are coming closer to the brink of extinction. A Problem of Abnormal Number of Chromosomes Having an abnormal number of chromosomes is known as aneuploidy. Genetic Engineering Outline Thesis: There are multiple points to support that the practice of genetic engineering helps us as a society, but there are other sides arguing that the genetic modification of humans and animals dna essay unjust. An Issue of Human Genetic Engineering With an increased awareness of the human footprint being left on Earth, there has been a shift in many science fields to find ways to improve sustainability.
A Benefit of Genetic Engineering Disease, drought, malnutrition, pests, malfunctioning genes are all factors are all problems that society faces. Mitochondrial DNA Sequencing and its Application in Forensic Sciences DNA deoxyribonucleic acid has significantly impacted the scientific world since it was fully decoded by the Human Genome Project in Critical Analysis: DNA Evidence Introduction DNA evidence is the use of body products like saliva, blood, skin cells, semen, and any biological material to develop investigative leads. Chemistry in Forensic Science essay The world of health careers is extensive and offers thousands of possibilities to prospective students, but arguably one of the most interesting dna essay these fields is forensic chemistry.
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ASHG uses cookies to provide you with a secure and custom web experience. Privacy Policy. Skip to content ASHG is proud to support National DNA Day through the Annual DNA Day Essay Contest. How does the study of Mendelian disorders help us understand complex diseases? Important Dates Early January, Submission site opens Early March, Submission site closes Monday, April 25, DNA Day! Email dnaday ashg. org Read all the winning essays from here. Frequently Asked Questions FAQ. How many essays can one student submit? Only one entry per student. What is included in the word count, and what is not? In eukaryotes, four types of polymerase enzymes, viz. alpha, delta, gamma and epsilon are used. DNA Polymerase alpha and delta replicate the DNA.
The alpha is associated with initiation, and delta extends the nascent strands. DNA polymerase epsilon and beta are used for repair. DNA polymerase gamma is used for replication of mitochondrial DNA. In prokaryotes [E. coli], there are three major DNA polymerases: DNA polymerase I, II and III. DNA poly I is found in the highest concentration of all DNA polymerases; it is involved in DNA repair and assists with primary DNA replication. DNA poly II is exclusively involved in repair. DNA poly III is the major DNA polymerase.
Currently, six families of polymerases A, B, C. D, X, Y have been discovered. At least four different types of DNA polymerases are involved in the replication of DNA in animal cells POLA, POLG, POLD and POLE. The synthesis of one new strand takes place in and that of other in opposite direction. The replication may take place either in one direction or in both the directions from the point of origin. When replication proceeds in one direction only, it is called unidirectional replication. When the replication proceeds in both the directions, it is called bidirectional replication.
Based on the direction, the replication may be unidirectional or bidirectional. On the basis of continuity, the replication may be continuous or discontinuous. The point of initiation of DNA replication is known as origin. The progress of replication process is measured from the point of origin. In prokaryotic cells the rate of replication is bases per second. In eukaryotic cells the rate of replication- is 50 bases per second. Eukaryotes have to 3, times more DNA than prokaryotes. There are three models which explain the accurate replication of DNA. These are: i dispersive replication, ii conservative replication, and iii semiconservative replication Fig. According to this model of replication the two strands of parental DNA break at several points resulting in several pieces of DNA.
Each piece replicates and pieces are reunited randomly, resulting in formation of two copies of DNA from single copy. The new DNA molecules are hybrids which have new and DNA in patches Fig. This method of DNA replication is not accepted as it could not be proved experimentally. According to this model of DNA replication two DNA molecules are formed from parental DNA. One copy has both parental strands and the other contains both newly synthesized strands Fig. This method is also not accepted as there is no experimental proof in support of this model.
This model of DNA replication was proposed by Watson and Crick. According to this model of DNA replication, both strands of parental DNA separate from each other. Each old strand synthesizes a new strand. Thus each of the two resulting DNA molecules has one parental and one new strand Fig. This model of DNA replication is universally accepted because there are several evidences in support of this mode. The semi-conservative model mechanism of DNA replication consists of six important steps, viz:. The first major step in the process of DNA, replication is the breaking of hydrogen bonds between bases of the two anti-parallel strands. The unwinding of the two strands is the starting point. The splitting happens in places of the chains which are rich in A-T.
That is because there are only two bonds between Adenine and Thymine, whereas there are three hydrogen bonds between Cytosine and Guanine. The Helicase enzyme splits the two strands. Synthesis of RNA primer is essential for initiation of DNA replication. RNA primer is synthesized by DNA template near the origin with the help of RNA Primase. RNA nucleotides are the primers starters for the binding of DNA nucleotides. The elongation proceeds in both directions, viz. The replication of this template is complicated and the new strand is called lagging strand. In the lagging strand the RNA Primase adds more RNA Primers. DNA polymerase a reads the template and lengthens the bubbles. The daughter strand is elongated with the binding of more DNA nucleotides. The RNA Primers are removed or degraded by DNA polymerase I.
This enzyme also catalyzes the synthesis of short DNA segments to replace the primers. The gaps are filled with the action of DNA Polymerase which adds complementary nucleotides to the gaps. The DNA Ligase enzyme adds phosphate in the remaining gaps of the phosphate-sugar backbone. Each new double helix is consisted of one old and one new chain. This is called semi-conservative replication. The termination takes place when the DNA Polymerase reaches to an end of the strands. In other words, it is the separation of replicated linear DNA. After removal of the RNA primer, it is not possible for the DNA Polymerase to seal the gap because there is no primer.
Hence, the end of the parental strand where the last primer binds is not replicated. These ends of linear chromosomal DNA consist of noncoding DNA that contains repeat sequences and are called telomeres. A part of the telomere is removed in every cycle of DNA Replication. The DNA replication is not completed without DNA repair. The possible errors caused during the DNA replication are repaired by DNA repair mechanism. Enzymes like nucleases remove the wrong nucleotides and the DNA Polymerase fills the gaps. Similar processes also happen during the steps of DNA Replication of prokaryotes though there are some differences.
Various experiments have demonstrated the semi-conservative mode of DNA replication. Now it is universally accepted that DNA replicates in a semi-conservative manner. There are three important experiments which support that DNA replication is semi-conservative. Meselson and Stahl conducted their experiment with common bacteria of human intestine i. Escherichia coli. The sequence of bases along the polynucleotide chain is not restricted. The precise sequence of bases carries the genetic information. The sugar-phosphate backbones of the two DNA strands wind around the helix axis like the railing of a spiral staircase.
The bases of the individual nucleotides are on the inside of the helix, stacked on top of each other like the steps of a spiral staircase. DNA molecule is a polymer which is composed of several thousand pairs of nucleotide monomers. Union of several nucleotides together leads to the formation of polynucleotide chain. Nucleotides are also known as nitrogenous bases or DNA bases. Nitrogenous base are of two types, viz. pyrimidines and purines. Thus, in DNA there are four different types of nitrogenous bases, viz. adenine A , guanine G , cytosine C and thymine T. In RNA, the pyrimidine base thymine is replace by uracil. The purine and pyrimidine bases always pair in a definite fashion.
Adenine will always pair with thymine and guanine with cytosine. Adenine and thymine are joined by double hydrogen bonds while guanine and cytosine are joined by triple hydrogen bonds. However, these bonds are weak which help in separation of DNA strands during replication. This is a pentose sugar having five carbon atoms. The four carbon atoms are inside the ring and the fifth one is with CH 2 group. This has three OH groups on 1, 3 and 5 carbon positions. Hydrogen atoms are attached to carbon atoms one to four. In RNA, the sugar ribose is similar to deoxyribose except that it has OH group on carbon atom 2 instead of H group.
The phosphate molecule is arranged in an alternate manner to deoxyribose molecule. Thus there is deoxyribose on both sides of phosphate. The phosphate is joined with carbon atom 3 of deoxyribose at one side and with carbon atom 5 of deoxyribose on the other side. A combination of deoxyribose sugar and nitrogenous base is known as nucleoside and a combination of nucleoside and phosphate is called nucleotide. Thus, a nucleotide is a nucleoside with one or more phosphate groups covalently attached to it. Nucleosides differ from nucleotides in that they lack phosphate groups. The four different nucleosides of DNA are deoxyadenosine dA , deoxyguanosine dG , deoxycytosine dC , and deoxythymidine dT.
The DNA backbone is a polymer with an alternating sugar-phosphate sequence. Depending upon the nucleotide base per turn of the helix, pitch of the helix, tilt of the base pair and humidity of the sample, the DNA can be observed in four different forms namely, A, B, C and D. The comparison of A, B and Z forms of DNA is presented in Table The minor groove is wide and shallow which is accessible to proteins, but information content is lower than major groove. Essay , Biology , Genetics , Molecular Genetics , Nucleic Acid , DNA. Top Menu BiologyDiscussion. com Follow Us On: Facebook Twitter Google Plus Publish Now.
Navigation Home Static Main Menu Home Questions and Answers Forum Share Your Knowledge Content Quality Guidelines Disclaimer Privacy Policy Contact Us. Related Articles: Structural Features of DNA Genetics Watson-Crick Model of DNA Genetics. DNA Markers: Definition, Properties and Applications. Crossing Over: Meaning, Mechanism and Significance Genetics. This is a question and answer forum for students, teachers and general visitors for exchanging articles, answers and notes. Answer Now and help others. Answer Now. Here's how it works: Anybody can ask a question Anybody can answer The best answers are voted up and rise to the top.
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